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@Charan Ranganath : 我认为记忆的重要性并非人们通常认为的那样，仅仅在于记住过去的信息。实际上，记忆对于我们理解现在，定位自身在时间和空间中的位置，以及规划和想象未来至关重要。患有记忆障碍的人，他们的问题并非单纯无法回忆过去，而是这种记忆缺失导致他们无法判断自己是否吃过饭，重复说过同样的话，或者缺乏对未来的预判能力，最终影响他们的日常生活和独立生活能力。 关于体验自我和记忆自我，我的研究表明，我们经历的大部分内容都会被遗忘。即使你向朋友描述一次精彩的访谈，你也无法复述每一个字。我们做决定时依赖的是记忆自我，它只拥有体验自我经历中的一小部分信息。这就像丹尼尔·卡尼曼提到的，体验自我经历着一切，而记忆自我只能获取其中的一小部分。这种不完整性并非缺陷，而是我们大脑经过进化后选择性保留重要信息的机制。 关于超级记忆者，他们的记忆能力惊人，但他们也为此付出代价，因为他们会被不相关或负面的记忆困扰。这表明，我们拥有不完整的记忆其实是件好事，因为我们记住的往往是我们需要记住的。这就像打包行李，我们只带走必要的物品。大脑会选择性地记住那些重要、令人惊讶或情绪激动的信息。 关于人类记忆的工作机制，它通常是自发的。大脑会在遇到新奇或重要的事情时形成详细的记忆片段，然后我们再将这些片段重建成故事。记忆并非简单的过去重现，而是对过去的想象和重建。 决定我们是否记住某件事的因素有很多，我总结了一个首字母缩写词MEDIC，分别代表意义(Meaning)、错误(Error)、独特性(Distinctiveness)、重要性(Importance)和情境(Context)。意义是指已有知识结构对新信息记忆的影响；错误是指在回忆过程中出现的错误，反而有助于记忆的巩固；独特性是指记忆的独特性，避免与其他记忆混淆；重要性是指大脑根据进化机制判断的信息重要性，通常是情绪化的或令人兴奋的经历；情境是指事件发生的时间和地点。 遗忘的原因有两种：一是记忆从大脑中消失；二是找不到记忆。我们拥有比我们能够回忆起更多的记忆。主动遗忘是可能的，但效果有限。 记忆训练的关键在于关注细节，避免干扰因素，并设定想要记住的目标。错误驱动的学习是指，当我们试图回忆某件事时，大脑会尝试重建记忆，如果出现错误，我们会得到反馈并修正记忆，从而使记忆更加准确。 情绪与记忆的关系密切。情绪会影响我们记住的内容和方式，但更重要的是，情绪会影响我们对记忆的重建。积极的情绪会让我们更容易回忆起积极的记忆，反之亦然。这也就是为什么抑郁症会形成恶性循环。 记忆与时间感知的关系也很密切。情境的变化会影响我们的记忆，从而影响我们对时间的感知。 最后，我希望人们能够认识到记忆并非免费和容易的，需要付出努力和技巧。记忆不仅关乎过去，也关乎现在和未来。 @Chris : 我注意到，你提到记忆就像呼吸一样，我们无意识地进行，但也可以有意识地进行调整。这是否意味着记忆既有自动运行的机制，也有我们主动控制的空间？ 你提到，如果我们能够访问体验自我的所有经历，就能做出更全面的决定。这是否意味着，如果我们能够记住体验自我的所有经历，就能做出更明智的决定？ 你提到，超级记忆者会感到痛苦，因为他们记得太多不必要的信息。这是否意味着，我们的大脑选择性地遗忘信息，是为了保护我们免受不必要信息的困扰？ 你提到，我们对记忆的个体差异了解有限。这是否意味着，我们对记忆的理解仍然存在很大的局限性？ 你提到，勒布朗·詹姆斯的记忆力超群，这与其多年的篮球经验有关。这是否意味着，专业知识和经验能够极大地提升记忆力？ 你提到，人类记忆的工作方式是自发的，大脑会在遇到新奇或重要的事情时形成详细的记忆片段。这是否意味着，我们的大脑会优先记住那些新奇或重要的事情？ 你提到，MEDIC模型解释了我们如何记住事情。这是否意味着，我们可以通过理解这个模型来更好地提升记忆力？ 你提到，遗忘的原因有两种：一是记忆从大脑中消失；二是找不到记忆。这是否意味着，我们可以通过一些方法来找到那些被遗忘的记忆？ 你提到，我们可以主动让自己忘记一些事情。这是否意味着，我们可以控制自己的记忆？ 你提到，记忆训练的关键在于关注细节，避免干扰因素，并设定想要记住的目标。这是否意味着，我们可以通过有意识地训练来提升记忆力？ 你提到，错误驱动的学习是指，当我们试图回忆某件事时，大脑会尝试重建记忆，如果出现错误，我们会得到反馈并修正记忆。这是否意味着，学习过程中犯错是不可避免的，也是提升记忆力的重要途径？ 你提到，情绪与记忆的关系密切。这是否意味着，情绪会影响我们的记忆？ 你提到，记忆与时间感知的关系也很密切。这是否意味着，我们的记忆会影响我们对时间的感知？ 你提到，我希望人们能够认识到记忆并非免费和容易的，需要付出努力和技巧。这是否意味着，提升记忆力需要付出努力和时间？ 你提到，记忆不仅关乎过去，也关乎现在和未来。这是否意味着，记忆对于我们理解现在和规划未来至关重要？

Charan Ranganath教授是一位认知神经科学家，他的研究颠覆了人们对记忆的传统认知。他认为，记忆的重要性远不止于记住过去，更是我们理解现在、定位自身，规划未来的基石。记忆障碍患者并非单纯无法回忆过去，而是这种缺失导致他们无法应对日常生活，例如判断是否进食、避免重复言语，以及缺乏对未来的预判。这并非简单的信息缺失，而是对生活能力的严重影响。

研究揭示了“体验自我”和“记忆自我”之间的微妙关系。我们经历的大部分内容都会被遗忘，即使是精彩的对话，也无法完整复述。我们做决定时依赖的是“记忆自我”，只拥有“体验自我”经历中的一小部分信息。这并非缺陷，而是大脑进化出的选择性保留机制，如同打包行李，我们只携带必需品。大脑会优先记住那些重要、新奇或情绪激动的信息。

那些拥有“超级记忆”的人，他们的记忆能力令人惊叹，却也为此付出代价——被不相关或负面记忆困扰。这反证了不完整记忆的益处：我们记住的，往往是我们需要的。

人类记忆并非被动记录，而是主动建构。大脑会在遇到新奇或重要事件时形成记忆片段，随后我们将其重建成故事。记忆并非简单的过去重现，而是对过去的想象和重建。

影响记忆的因素，我总结为MEDIC模型：意义(Meaning)——已有知识结构对新信息记忆的影响；错误(Error)——回忆过程中的错误反而有助于记忆巩固；独特性(Distinctiveness)——记忆的独特性，避免与其他记忆混淆；重要性(Importance)——大脑根据进化机制判断的信息重要性，通常是情绪化或令人兴奋的经历；情境(Context)——事件发生的时间和地点。

遗忘的原因，一是记忆本身消失，二是无法找到记忆。我们拥有比可回忆更多记忆，主动遗忘是可能的，但效果有限。

记忆训练并非死记硬背，而是注重细节，避免干扰，并设定目标。错误驱动的学习是指在回忆过程中出现的错误，能帮助我们修正记忆，使其更准确。

情绪与记忆紧密相连。情绪会影响我们记住的内容和方式，更重要的是，影响我们对记忆的重建。积极情绪更容易唤起积极记忆，反之亦然，这解释了抑郁症的恶性循环。

记忆还会影响我们对时间的感知。情境变化会影响记忆，进而影响时间感知。

要强调的是，记忆并非易事，需要努力和技巧。记忆不仅关乎过去，更关乎现在和未来。它让我们理解当下，并规划未来。 记忆是我们的导航系统，而非简单的记录器。 我们需要学会有效地利用它，而非被它所束缚。

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00:32 记忆的重要性在于帮助我们理解现在、定位自身以及规划未来，而非仅仅是记住过去。

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01:57 我们的大部分经历都会被遗忘，记忆只保留了经历中很小一部分信息，而我们正是基于这部分不完整的信息来做决定，这造成了“体验自我”和“记忆自我”之间的差异。

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04:42 我们拥有不完整的记忆其实是件好事，因为我们记住的往往是我们需要记住的，这就像我们打包行李一样，只带走必要的物品。

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07:13 我们对记忆个体差异的了解仍然有限，即使是记忆力超群的人，他们的日常生活也和普通人无异。

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08:59 卓越的记忆力可能与个人的专业知识和对信息的处理方式有关，例如勒布朗·詹姆斯对篮球比赛的记忆力超群，这与其多年的篮球经验和对比赛的深入理解有关。

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10:33 人类记忆的工作方式是自发的，我们的大脑会在遇到新奇或重要的事情时形成详细的记忆片段，然后我们再将这些片段重建成故事。

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13:16 决定我们是否记住某件事的因素有很多，包括意义、错误、独特性、重要性和情境（MEDIC）。

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24:17 记忆既有自动运行的机制，也有我们主动控制的空间，我们可以通过改变视角、与他人分享等方式来修改和更新记忆。

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28:54 遗忘的原因有两种：一是记忆从大脑中消失；二是找不到记忆。

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30:42 我们可以主动让自己忘记一些事情，但这并非总是有效，有时我们只是需要合适的线索来回忆起被遗忘的记忆。

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35:07 记忆训练的关键在于关注细节，避免干扰因素，并设定想要记住的目标。

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38:21 错误驱动的学习是指，当我们试图回忆某件事时，大脑会尝试重建记忆，如果出现错误，我们会得到反馈并修正记忆，从而使记忆更加准确。

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为什么记忆很重要？

记忆的重要性可能不是人们通常认为的那样。我们常觉得记忆重要是因为记不住东西会让人沮丧，比如记不起某人的名字或某个电影里的演员。但记忆的真正核心在于帮助我们理解现在，定位自己在空间和时间中的位置，规划和想象未来。

记忆障碍患者的问题不是单纯记不住过去，而是因此无法判断最近是否吃过饭、反复重复相同的话，或缺乏对未来的预见。这些缺陷让他们难以独立生活，不是因为他们记不住一小时前的事，而是记忆缺失影响了日常功能。

提到了一种“体验自我”和“记忆自我”的概念，这两者有什么关系、区别或冲突？

研究表明，我们经历的大多数事情都会被遗忘。比如你听完这个播客，想跟朋友描述，觉得采访很精彩，但你最多只能复述10分钟的内容，远不及我们对话的全部。很多重要观点可能也会被忘记。

关键是，当你要做人生决定，比如是否去度假，你会回想过去的度假经历，但依赖的不是完整体验，而是记忆——一个非常不完整的片段。

诺贝尔奖得主丹尼·卡尼曼称之为“体验自我”和“记忆自我”。前者活在当下，经历一切；后者只能访问少量信息，却是我们判断幸福、规划未来的依据。

这就像两个不同的人，体验自我在现在，记忆自我在过去，有点像美剧《人生切割术》里的割裂感。

如果记忆自我能记住体验自我的一切，会不会让我们有更丰富的数据来做决定，比如选择度假地？

卡尼曼认为我们无法完全访问体验自我是不理性的，但我认为恰恰相反。有些人拥有超强自传体记忆，能精确回忆多年前某天的早餐、天气或比赛结果。但这些人常形容这是一种折磨，像是被无关或负面记忆困扰。

我们拥有不完整记忆其实是种恩赐，就像打包旅行行李，你不会带上所有东西，只带需要的。记忆也是如此，记住对未来有用的东西，比如重要的、令人惊讶的或情绪激动的时刻。

那些超强记忆者的大脑有什么特别？

我们对记忆个体差异的了解还很有限。研究暗示大脑纹状体可能有些差异，但差异很小。令人惊讶的是，超强记忆者和记忆力极差的人在现实生活中功能相似。超强记忆者并非都成了名人，他们的日常生活跟普通人差不多，没在学业或经历上有明显优势。可能跟他们对“有趣”内容的关注和知识构建方式有关。比如勒布朗·詹姆斯对篮球比赛有超凡记忆，能详细描述多年前的比赛场景。这不是因为他记住更多，而是因为他多年的篮球经验让他能抓住关键模式，快速存储和提取信息。

普通人的记忆如何运作？

人类记忆常是自发的。近期研究发现，我们并非总在编码详细记忆，因为世界很多部分是可预测的。大脑在遇到新奇、意外或重要的事情时会形成快照式记忆，比如达成目标的瞬间。这些片段会在特定线索下突然浮现，比如听到久违的歌曲或重游童年之地。但回忆时，我们不是重播过去，而像考古学家根据陶片想象古代文明一样，重建可能发生的故事。

为什么有些事记得清晰，有些模糊或完全忘记？

决定记忆的因素可用“MEDIC”来概括：意义（Meaning）、错误（Error）、独特性（Distinctiveness）、重要性（Importance）、情境（Context）。

意义指已有知识帮助记忆新信息，比如足球迷能快速记住虚构球员的数据，因为他们有相关知识结构。

错误指挣扎回忆时，得到正确反馈能稳定记忆，比如努力回忆名字，纠正错误后记得更牢。

独特性指独特信息更容易记住，比如专注某人独有特征能形成鲜明记忆；但若分心拍照，记忆反而不深。

重要性指进化上大脑认为重要的事，比如情绪激发的经历（恐惧、欲望），因多巴胺、去甲肾上腺素等化学物质促进记忆巩固。

情境指记忆与时间地点绑定，海马体按时空归档，熟悉的歌曲能唤起高中回忆。

记忆像呼吸一样，既自动又可部分控制吗？

是的。记忆有许多幕后自动过程，比如学中文时，大脑逐渐适应字符，处理更快，这些变化常不被察觉。但我们也有很多控制权，比如选择回忆的叙事视角。不同球迷回忆同一场比赛会有完全不同的记忆，因为视角不同。创伤后应激障碍患者通过分享经历，改变对创伤的看法，能更新记忆。我们对记忆有很大主动权，记忆并非一成不变，而是像沙子般流动，可通过有意调整变得更有利。

为什么会忘记？

有两种理论：一是记忆从大脑消失，神经元连接衰退；二是找不到记忆，但适当线索能唤起。后者更常见，比如突然想起某人名字。遗忘有时是没给大脑机会找回记忆。

主动忘记可能吗？

研究表明可以，比如通过抑制回忆来“自愿遗忘”，但效果有限，可能对忘记临时密码有效，对创伤记忆帮助不大。

人们常为记不住经历感到内疚，觉得白费时间，想记住更多，合理吗？

不必记住更多，而应记住更好的、更重要的东西。假期是记忆的投资，但很多遗忘不重要。或许需要正确线索，比如回到类似情境（如夏威夷的湿度和花香）能唤起回忆。每天反思一个积极事件也能帮助巩固记忆，让未来更容易回想。

训练记忆的基础是什么？

不是像记忆运动员那样背圆周率，而是关注感官细节，沉浸于独特时刻，避免压力、疲劳、多任务等干扰。设定记住什么的意图很重要，比如问自己想从这次经历带走什么记忆。错误驱动学习也很关键，挣扎回忆并纠正错误能让记忆更稳固，比如反复尝试回忆某人名字，查看正确答案后大脑会调整记忆，使其更鲜明、更能在不同情境下提取。

负面情绪对记忆有偏见吗？

是的，情绪状态影响记忆。心情差时偏向回忆负面记忆，且重建得更负面；心情好时则相反。老年人常有积极记忆偏见。抑郁者陷入恶性循环，负面回忆加剧情绪，认知疗法通过唤起相反记忆打破这种循环。日常生活中，回忆一件小积极事件（如好吃的三明治）能改变情绪，打开更多积极记忆。

记忆与想象的区别？

几乎没有。脑部扫描显示，想象、回忆和感知时的脑活动几乎相同。我们用同一系统想象过去、现在和未来。区别在于，情节记忆固定于时空，想象通常不如现实生动，需前额叶皮层推理区分两者。

不记得也能学习吗？

是的。除了情节记忆，还有非情节学习，比如技能学习。即使海马体受损的失忆者也能学钢琴或篮球，因为神经元连接的塑性让大脑不断调整。运动系统通过错误驱动学习优化，比如投篮时，小脑预测球的轨迹，若出错则调整模型。睡眠（尤其是快速眼动睡眠）可能通过“演练”巩固这些技能。

新奇和强烈经历易被记住。新奇分两种：强度新奇（熟悉场景但体验强烈，如滑雪时遇雪崩）和类别新奇（全新场景，如新滑雪山）。即使生活例行化，专注细微变化也能创造新奇，激发好奇心，形成更独特记忆。冥想练习通过关注“新”来增强记忆。

记忆与主观时间流逝的关系？

情境变化影响记忆和时间感。疫情期间，学生每天对着电脑，日子过得慢，但一周回顾时记忆模糊，觉得时间飞逝。因为缺乏独特记忆，时间感扭曲。记忆障碍者无法感知当前日期，时间感停留在最后清晰记忆（如1997年），凸显记忆对时间定位的重要性。

关于记忆的最大误解是什么？

一是认为记忆该轻松免费，实际它需努力和意图；

二是认为记忆只关乎过去，实际它服务于现在和未来。

记忆让你跟上对话、预测未来、规划行动。没有记忆，你会不断重复问题或迷失方向。记忆不是为缅怀过去，而是为现今和未来提供有用信息。

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00:00

Why is memory important? 语法解析

00:03

Well, memory is probably not important for the reason people think it is, right? So we always think, well, memory is important when we can't remember. Then we get frustrated about it. We say, oh, why can't I remember this person's name? Why can't I remember the name of that guy who was in that thing? Why memory is really important is because it's absolutely central to helping us understand the present, where we are in space, when we are in time. 语法解析

00:32

And to be able to plan and imagine possible futures. So if you look at people with memory disorders, their problem in life is not that they can't remember the past per se. 语法解析

00:45

It's that their inability to remember the past makes it hard for them to remember whether they've eaten recently, or they end up repeating themselves over and over again, or they just don't have much foresight into what they will do in the future. They have all of these deficits that keep them from living independently, not because they can't tell you what happened an hour ago or something. It's because… 语法解析

01:13

that inability leads them to just not be able to do almost anything that healthy people do in society in a day-to-day basis. Yeah. So you've sort of touched on something there. You've got a self that experiences stuff and you've got a self that remembers you experiencing stuff. What is the relationship, the difference, the tension between these two selves? 语法解析

01:37

Well, one of the things that we know from memory research is that the overwhelming majority of what we experience will be forgotten, right? So if your listeners end up telling somebody, hey, I heard this great interview on this podcast, the interviewer was on fire, you know, and so then they describe it to one of their friends. 语法解析

01:57

If they spend 10 minutes describing this long-form conversation that we're having, that would be a huge success memory-wise, right? There's no way anyone's going to regurgitate every word of what we said. And many of the important points we talk about, people will probably forget, right? So here's the thing. Now I want to make a decision about my life. Now I want to make a decision about whether to take vacations. 语法解析

02:21

What do I do? I think about all the past vacations I've taken, where I went and whether I like them or not. 语法解析

02:27

And if I do that, I'm going to be relying not on what I experienced, but on memory, which is much, much more, much less complete. Right. It's this tiny fraction of what we actually experience. And so Danny Kahneman, the Nobel Prize winning psychologist, referred to this idea that we have an experiencing self that lives through all these things that we do, but 语法解析

02:51

But the remembering self only has access to a tiny bit of that information. And that's the basis on which we decide, am I happy right now? What do I want to do in the future? Um, 语法解析

03:05

Where am I? And so forth. We're really in the situation where we make most of our decisions based on the remembering self. And it's almost as if they're two different people because of the fact that the experiencing self is in the present and the remembering self is in the past. It's like if you're a fan of that show Severance, it's a bit like that. It sort of suggests to me that the 语法解析

03:32

if there was a way for the remembering self to remember everything the experiencing self experienced, that this would give us a fuller picture. Maybe we would be choosing from a deeper, more rich data set to be able to make our decision about the vacation, whatever it is. Oh, well, we once had a conversation with somebody about going to Tulum, but I forgot about that conversation about Tulum. We went to Tulum and Tulum sucked or it was great or whatever. 语法解析

04:01

Yeah, yeah, it's a great question. And Kahneman felt like it was, in fact, quite irrational that we don't have this capability to access the experiencing self. Remember, and to me, it's actually quite the opposite. 语法解析

04:14

If you talk to people who have what's called highly superior autobiographical memory, these are people who have just this incredible database of information that they've experienced. They could tell you on a particular date seven years ago exactly what they had for breakfast, what the weather was, who won the sports matches that day. Unbelievable. And if you read descriptions, many of these people talk about it as torture. 语法解析

04:42

They say it's something that they wouldn't wish on their worst enemy. I mean, they are often plagued by memories. At best, it's irrelevant stuff. And at worst, it's the stuff that 语法解析

04:55

is minor and negative, but it just comes back to them over and over again. So one way I like to think about it is that we're blessed with this incomplete memory because what we remember tends to be what we need. So just as an analogy, imagine you are taking a trip, right? Since we're in vacation mode. Imagine you are taking a trip, you'll pack your suitcase. Now, will you pack everything you own? Probably not. 语法解析

05:24

Probably not. Okay, good. So I don't know, maybe you're a minimalist, but most of us would not, right? So when you're making a decision about what to pack, what are you thinking of? How do you choose? Probably think about similar trips you took in the past, might imagine what this trip might be like and try to work out what it could be that would be required. 语法解析

05:47

Exactly. So you're going to work out what you think you'll need on this trip, right? And you'll carry with you only the stuff that you think you'll need. Sometimes you'll carry stuff that turns out you don't use. Sometimes you'll pack some things and it turns out that you're missing something, right? And you forgot this jacket that you desperately need. And then you'll kick yourself for not having packed everything. 语法解析

06:10

But here's the bit. On average, you do pretty well by packing just what you need. And that's how memory works. It's kind of an analogy for memory and the journey of life that we take, right? Our brains are trying to figure out through millennia of evolution, what's the best information to carry with us? What's the information that we're going to need in the future? Is it going to be every word of every conversation? Or is it going to be the stuff that was important in some way? 语法解析

06:38

The stuff that we paid attention to, the stuff that was surprising or new, the stuff that got us emotionally aroused because it's rewarding or something that is scary and a threat that we want to remember later on. And if you look back at the memories of your life, those will be the kinds of things that we tend to remember better. 语法解析

07:01

Just lingering on the super-remembers for a second, what's happening inside of the brains of these people? Are their brains structurally, functionally different? Do we know why it happens? 语法解析

07:13

Yeah, it's kind of surprising how little we know about these individual differences in memory overall. There are some hints that there are some differences. I believe it was in an area of the brain called the striatum. But you know what surprised me in reading that research is how subtle and small the differences really are. 语法解析

07:37

They're not all that big. And you can look at people with severely deficient autobiographical memory, people who you ask them, you know, what they did yesterday, and they'll give you a very minimal answer and they won't be able to remember hardly anything in detail. What they tell you will sound like they're reading from a book, not something that they actually lived, right? Yeah. 语法解析

08:02

Yet you look in real life and the highly superior and the severely deficient people, 语法解析

08:07

they're functioning at equal levels. It's not like the highly superior people are limitless and they're, you know, rich and famous. And yeah, you can find some rich and famous people with H that, but for the most part, they're just like everybody else in terms of their daily life. They didn't perform better in school. They didn't do, you know, live out some amazing experiences that nobody else would have. So, um, 语法解析

08:33

We don't know enough about what makes the brains different, but it may be something related, in my opinion, and this is just purely opinion, it may be something to do with the way people think about what's interesting to them and the way they build their knowledge. So, for instance, there's all this data, or not all this data, there's all these videos of LeBron James, and I mention him in my book, 语法解析

08:59

And I also did an interview with the NBA about this. And basically, LeBron has this extraordinary memory for basketball games. He could talk about a game that he played in long ago and describe plays in that game. And the plays go point by point with a video that you could sync up to what he's saying. I mean, it's just… And you think about how quickly that information is going by him and how hard it would be to… 语法解析

09:28

construct some kind of a detailed memory from it. But the guy has studied the game and played the game for so long. What seems like this incredibly confusing array of people running around at super high speeds and all of this stuff happening, he's able to just grab it and put it in a little compartment because he's already seen it before, basically. And so he's not even looking at what's happening now. He's looking at what's going to happen 30 seconds ahead, a minute ahead. 语法解析

09:56

He's looking at where the ball is going and anticipating three plays ahead. And it's that expertise that really gives him this extraordinary ability to remember in detail. And that's a case where it's not about remembering more in the sense of just remembering everything willy-nilly. It's about remembering better in the sense of being able to grab the patterns, the information that you need, and being able to pull it out as quickly as possible. 语法解析

10:22

Okay, let's say we're talking about a normal human now, not a never-rememberer, not an everything-rememberer. How does human memory work typically in our brains? 语法解析

10:33

Oh, that's such a big, big question. I think the way human memory works is it's often spontaneous in the sense that we will, you know, in our research that's actually happening right now, but in some of our very recent research, we've found that we're not actually encoding rich memories all the time because much of the world is very predictable. 语法解析

11:00

And in fact, it looks like our brains are really kind of forming these detailed snapshot memories at these moments when we're struggling a little bit because something's new or surprising. Or at times where this is just motivationally very important to us. We just achieved a goal of some kind, right? And so… 语法解析

11:21

These moments are kind of these snapshots that we have. And then later on, they can often spontaneously pop into our heads. Like if you hear a song that you haven't heard in a long time, or if you go back to a place you haven't been to since you were a child, all of a sudden these memories pop into your head, right? But what happens is you get these little bits and pieces, and then you reconstruct that into a story. 语法解析

11:46

And so what's critically interesting about that piece is that when we're remembering, we're never really replaying the past. We're imagining how the past could have been. Just like an archaeologist imagines how an ancient civilization might have been based on some fragments of pottery that they take up, right? 语法解析

12:07

This episode is brought to you by the RP Hypertrophy app. This app has made a massive impact on my gains and enjoyment in going to the gym over the last year. It's designed by Dr. Mike Israetel and comes with over 45 pre-made training programs and more than 250 technique videos. It takes all the guesswork out of crafting the ideal lifting routine by literally spoon feeding you a step-by-step plan for every workout. It'll guide you through the exact same 语法解析

12:32

sets, reps, and weight to use, and most importantly, how to perfect your form so that every rep is optimized for maximum gains. It even adjusts every week based on your progress. And there is a 30-day money-back guarantee, so you can buy it and train with it for 29 days. If you don't like it, 语法解析

12:47

They'll just give you your money back right now. You can get up to $50 off the RP Hypertrophy app by going to the link in the description below or heading to rpstrength.com slash modern wisdom using the code modern wisdom at checkout. That's rpstrength.com slash modern wisdom and modern wisdom at checkout. That's interesting. So why do we remember some events so clearly and other ones vaguely or not at all? What predicts whether something will enter memory? 语法解析

13:16

There's many factors. I actually came up with an acronym for this after talking about memory for a long time, and it took me forever to realize that I could come up with a mnemonic to help me remember these things, which is MEDIC. And so it stands for Meaning, Error, and 语法解析

13:39

Let's see, it was meaning, error, now I'm trying to remember it all. You've got to remember the mnemonic. Distinctiveness, that's right. Meaning, error, distinctiveness, importance, and context. It did come to me, the mnemonic L. There it is. So let's go through that. Meaning is just like what I was telling you in the LeBron James example. When you have a body of knowledge about something, it makes it really easy to memorize new information. 语法解析

14:05

based on what you already know. So for instance, if you're a football fan, I'll say European football or whatever, everybody outside of America, what they would call football, right? So now I give you a hypothetical player who doesn't exist at all. And I give you the statistics on their performance. And I say, here's all the statistics you need to know about what this player is good at, what 语法解析

14:30

what they've done in the past and so forth. If you're a soccer expert, you can grab that information immediately, even though it's just a bunch of random numbers I just made up, a name of somebody who I've made up. 语法解析

14:41

Because you have a structure in your mind for locking in that information. And so meaning is a really good way to lock in new information by being able to tie what you're trying to learn with stuff you already know. So a lot of mnemonic devices work that way. I also mentioned error, and this is kind of a counterintuitive one. I usually like to talk about this last, but it's the second letter in medic. So… 语法解析

15:07

So error is basically the fact that the more we struggle to try to pull up a memory, and if we get the right feedback, what will happen is it gives our brain a chance to actually stabilize the memory and repair the problems that would happen. What I mean by this is, let's say you memorize how to pronounce my name, and then later on, 语法解析

15:30

An hour later, you just ask yourself, okay, how did I pronounce his name again? Let me try it. And you just say it. 语法解析

15:37

And then you play back what you actually said, which you did it perfectly, by the way. What you'll find is you hear that and now your brain will go, wait, I made a little bit of a mistake. It wasn't quite what I said before. Let me fix that memory. And we can see this in action in the brain. We've shown that you get activity in areas like the hippocampus when you're actually trying to retrieve information and then you repair these memories relative to 语法解析

16:05

to just trying to memorize it, just looking, right? And that's why you learn a layout of a place better if you drive yourself than if you sit in an Uber because you're actively trying to generate stuff for memory and then finding, oh, wait, I was wrong. And those errors allow the brain to build a more detailed map, so to speak. So, yeah. 语法解析

16:30

So error is one. The more you struggle, the better it is. Information will stick and you'll be able to retain it later on. If you don't give yourself a chance to struggle, like you just read the lines in play without rehearsing them from memory, you're never going to memorize it and retain it well. So that's another example. So I went to error.org. 语法解析

16:55

There was also now distinctiveness. So distinctiveness means that essentially our memories are competing with each other. And so this is a little bit counterintuitive. You might think memories are just like your phone. You store photos and every photo is independent of each other. 语法解析

17:12

But that's not the way the brain does it. This is why we don't run out of capacity like your phone does, because we're using the same neurons to code multiple memories. And so what happens is, is that there's a pattern of activity that's uniquely associated with my memory for you and a pattern of activity that's uniquely associated to other people I know. 语法解析

17:34

Now, to the extent that you look like people I know, those memories will be confusable to me. But if there's some way… 语法解析

17:45

I can attend to the features that make you different from anyone else I've met. Now I will have a distinctive memory. And so my brain, when it's trying to pull up a memory of you, it won't be as hard because you stand out relative to all the other faces of people. Right. So where this comes into play, for instance, is when people will take photos and Instagram walls when they go to places or they're at a concert and they're taking videos. 语法解析

18:13

And what you find is that people actually have a poorer memory for these experiences when they do that than when they're actually just trying to immerse themselves in the experience. And the reason is, is that when you're mindlessly taking pictures, you're not actually immersed in the details that will give you a distinctive memory. You're just kind of like, 语法解析

18:36

floating around trying to grab as much information as you can and what we lose is the memory for that experience and all we get out of it is a recording that most of us never go back to right 语法解析

18:47

So distinctiveness is hugely important. Now, you could use the camera and say, I'm going to use this camera to take a picture of something that's so uniquely associated with this place or so uniquely associated with this moment that I will not be able to forget it. And that's where you're using the camera as a way of giving you a distinctive memory as opposed to depriving you of one. 语法解析

19:11

So we've gone through M, E, and D now, right? So I is the big one, which is importance. And when I say importance, I'm not saying what you think is important in terms of your higher order self, but rather what your brain thinks is important based on evolution, right? So the things that are important, as I mentioned before, tend to be things that are emotionally evocative in some way or another or arousing in some way. 语法解析

19:39

being in a new place, being surprised, but also being scared. Traumas are enormously memorable, regardless of whether we want them to be. Things that are like being in a state of desire, those moments are very memorable to us. And so you can look at those states, and what you'll find is that there's these chemicals in the brain that are released pretty intensively during these states, chemicals like dopamine, noradrenaline, serotonin. 语法解析

20:08

cortisol. And many of your listeners, I'm sure, have heard some of these things. Dopamine, everybody talks about nowadays, right? And what dopamine does, for instance, is it gets you revved up. It doesn't actually give you a sense of pleasure, but it does get you revved up and it promotes plasticity. It allows these memories to rapidly consolidate, so to speak, so that they're much more resilient later on. 语法解析

20:34

So importance is not necessarily what I think, oh, yeah, I have to make sure that I remember this doctor appointment next week. But rather, it's something more along the lines of, oh, my God, I was in this cave and I got attacked by a bear. I want to remember that experience and I want to remember how I got there, how to avoid that in the future. Right. That's the kind of thing I'm talking about. 语法解析

21:01

So importance is a big one, and that's why we often remember these emotional experiences. The last one, and I know I've gone on for a long time, but you wanted to ask for it. I did indeed. So another one is context. That's what we'll see in MED-IC. So context is the place, the time that these events took place. So when we remember events or episodic memories, 语法解析

21:24

These are memories that are glued to a place in time. There's a brain area called the hippocampus. And what we know is the hippocampus, if it has any kind of a filing scheme, it files things according to time and place. So that's kind of why, for instance, if you hear a song, and this is a song that you haven't listened to since you're a teenager… 语法解析

21:47

Well, now what happens is it brings you back to that time because it's a cue that pulls up memories from that time period. And so that time period now has all sorts of memories associated with it and might bring you back to, you know, sneaking beers with your friends in high school or might bring you back to days where you went out to the beach or whatever it was. Right. And that. 语法解析

22:11

Experience is something we would call mental time travel, where a memory can bring you back to a past context, a time and a place. And these memories might seem like they're forgotten, but they can be pulled up if you're in the right context. 语法解析

22:28

And conversely, if you're in the wrong context, it's really bad. So, for instance, just as a simple example, you walk into the kitchen and you can't remember where you are or why you went to the kitchen. Sorry. You walk into the kitchen, you can't remember why you went there. Then you walk back to whatever room you went from. 语法解析

22:46

And now it all of a sudden pops in your head. And the reason is, is that my memory for what I wanted to do was in, say, this room, which is my home office. But then when I get to the kitchen, I'm in a different context. My mind is switched over to a different place. And so these boundaries between the rooms act as shifts in our context that make it harder to remember things in the past. 语法解析

23:11

So that's the last one. And all of these factors will determine life or death, you know, in terms of memories. It seems to me, I've had it in my head as you've been explaining so far, that memory feels a little bit like the breath. The breath being one of the few windows that we have into controlling the autonomic nervous system, that you actually do it unconsciously. 语法解析

23:34

but can step in consciously and make some amendments to it too. You can kind of tinker a little bit. Is that a fair analogy in this regard that there is a, there is memory is going on. We don't necessarily get to choose. And then we also have this degree of conscious control over how much stuff gets put into memory at the time, how much we pull it back out, et cetera. 语法解析

24:01

Absolutely. In fact, I would go farther and say we both have a lot of under the hood processes of memory. We have, but we also have a ton of control with memory, although we often don't use it, or at least we often don't use it properly. 语法解析

24:17

So what I mean is, on the one hand, you have these automatic processes that happen under the hood, like the brain is constantly tuning itself up to learn from experience so that you can process things faster and more efficiently. So you're trying to learn Chinese, let's say. Initially, these characters will be very hard to read, but if you keep reading the same characters over and over, your brain will start to tune up so that you can process that information faster. 语法解析

24:46

A lot of that happens without or even really feeling the changes that are happening in the brain. It's just happening. Now, on the bad side, you hear fake news and you hear it from 10 different sources. 语法解析

24:59

And all of a sudden, it starts to feel more believable. And the reason is our brain has tuned itself up to process those messages. And in the process, it seems easier to think about. And if it seems easier to think about, we often believe it's true, right? So that's an example of some of these automatic influences of memory that I talk about in the book. But there's also gobs of control we have. So for instance, there's research showing that when we remember an event, 语法解析

25:28

We have a lot of control over the narrative that we use to put together that event, right? So there's great stories about people where they have fans of two different sports teams. They watch the same football match. Then later on, you ask them for their memories of it, and their memories are just completely different from each other because they're watching it from the perspective of the team that they're liking, right? 语法解析

25:55

And there's other research showing that you can change your perspective. You can look at the same event from a different point of view and all of a sudden remember things that you didn't remember before. And so we have control over that narrative to some degree. And this is really important when you talk about things like trauma. I used to work with veterans who had PTSD. 语法解析

26:19

And one of the big challenges that they face was they had all the shame about their trauma and they never talked about it with anyone. And you could see this massive transformation in these patients when they would get hooked in with a group and they're talking to other people who experienced similar traumas and they share their trauma. And all of a sudden they realize, well, they're not alone. 语法解析

26:46

There are other people who face similar things. And they're getting support from these people from a completely different perspective. They're getting support from people who don't blame them, who aren't telling them to feel guilty. They aren't telling them that they're cowards. And all of a sudden, they look at the same experience they had from a completely different perspective. And now what happens is you're modifying and updating that memory. 语法解析

27:12

So we have a lot of agency over the way we use memory. And I think that is important because often people feel like their memories are, you know, a literal set in stone record of what happened. 语法解析

27:26

And in fact, it's like the sands are always shifting. There's always change that's happening. Sometimes we do it without knowing it and we just make a lot of mistakes because errors start to accumulate in our memories. But sometimes we can do it properly and 语法解析

27:41

and sometimes we can use that to our advantage. Before we continue, if your workouts feel flat, your recovery's slow, or you've just been feeling off, it might not be your training plan or your diet. It might be something a bit more boring, like zinc. And while most supplements like Tonkat Ali can help, zinc quietly plays a huge role in testosterone production, strength, recovery, and energy, and most people are chronically low in it. 语法解析

28:03

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28:28

They ship internationally. Right now, you can get 35% off your first subscription and that 30-day money-back guarantee by going to the link in the description below or heading to livemomentous.com slash modernwisdom using the code modernwisdom at checkout. That's L-I-V-E-M-O-M-E-N-T-O-U-S dot com slash modernwisdom and modernwisdom at checkout. Why do we forget things? Is it just a real estate demand problem inside of our brain? 语法解析

28:54

There are two schools of thought, both of which are probably right. One is that you forget because a memory just disappears from the brain. These connections that you have between neurons that allow the memory to be pulled up, those connections start to decay and become wiped out, and then you lose access to the memory because it's just gone. 语法解析

29:18

Another school of thought is that you can't find the memory you're looking for. But if you had the right cue, you would be able to pull it up, right? So you're trying to remember the name of the guy who was in that thing and you can't pull it up. And then an hour later, it just pops into your head, but it's too late. Your conversation is over, right? So in one case, you were in the wrong context. You couldn't pull it up. But now in a different context, you can pull it up very easily. So we have… 语法解析

29:47

It's absolutely… 语法解析

29:50

unequivocal that we have access to more memory. We have more memories that we could pull up than what we can actually pull up at any given time. So some of forgetting is just not being able to find. There is some evidence, though, to suggest that not everything's completely capped. And I fully believe that, too, based on the biology. So it's a little of both. But I think 语法解析

30:17

We don't give ourselves enough of an opportunity to find those memories sometimes when they are there. How can we make ourselves forget? Is that possible? If there's something where you think, I don't want to keep that in my mind anymore. I've been able to dispense with my 16-digit pen across the front of my card that I've been desperately trying to remember for the last three years. Is there such a thing as making ourselves forget? 语法解析

30:42

There is. It's controversial as to how effective it is. But a good friend of mine, Mike Anderson, has done a lot of research on what he calls voluntary forgetting, which is basically you cue people to recall something and then you tell the person, just suppress it. Don't think about it. 语法解析

31:03

And what you find is, is that the better people get at this, the more likely it is that they can voluntarily forget something. Now, these effects aren't gigantic and it's not clear. This is something that will help you. Probably it would be something that would help you forget, you know, um, a temporary password or something like that. I would be surprised if it doesn't help you with that. Um, 语法解析

31:28

you know, maybe a traumatic experience, unlikely, but who knows if you do it enough, maybe it would lead you to forget it. If nothing else, I think it would make it harder to retrieve those memories. I get the sense. And I certainly know this for myself that, you know, if I look back across a trip that I've taken or a time, an evening that I've spent with friends or an episode or a book that I've read or whatever, I, 语法解析

31:55

and I don't feel like I've recalled enough. There's this sort of odd sense of guilt. I think, well, what was the point of doing it? What was the point of going through all of this if it was just the passage of time and I've got no memory dividend that my future self is able to tap into so that my remembering self can actually sort of extract it? Is there an issue with this, yeah, this attempt to try and memorize more, this sort of… 语法解析

32:21

never-ending overdraft of wishing that you could recall more of the things that you did? Yes and no. I mean, what you're talking about is, I think, one of those kind of points where you want to be able to remember the things that are important. So I would say remember better, not more. 语法解析

32:38

try to remember the things that matter. So if you're with your family or close friends or a partner and you go on a holiday, those are the things that we typically like to remember. I mean, to some extent, a holiday is an investment in memories, right? On the other hand, there's a lot that… 语法解析

32:54

we forget that you can look and ask yourself, you know, 10 years later, will my future self care that I forgot this? No. Okay. So not that important. And I think that if you go back to the examples of the things that you aren't remembering with it, maybe you just need the right reminder. Maybe you need to mentally go back there because sometimes what happens is you 语法解析

33:19

when you take a holiday, you're in such a different state of mind. You're in a different place. Then you come back home and, 语法解析

33:26

And you lose that part of yourself because you're a different person when you're in a different context, so to speak. So I think about this where Hawaii is my happy place. When I'm in Hawaii, I can get into a mode that I can't get in my daily experience at work. So sometimes it's a matter of you go back there and you are in the humidity and you're smelling these tropical flowers and 语法解析

33:51

birds are going and boom, you remember all these things that you couldn't remember before. And so maybe that's the thing that you want to be able to do is try to call back some of those memories, either with photos or with, you know, just at the end of the day while you're on these holidays. If you just take a moment and reflect on trying to just remember one 语法解析

34:16

positive thing from the day, right? What you'll find is that one positive thing will come to mind, and then that'll make another positive thing come to mind. And all of a sudden, you've recalled all of these experiences that you had. And the act of recalling those experiences will make it easier to bring those experiences to mind later on so that you can incorporate it into your remembering self in a more rich way. 语法解析

34:40

What are the fundamentals of training memory? You know, we've spoken about kind of how the environment cues our brain to tell us the things that we want to remember. This is how you breathe and why you breathe when you're not thinking about breathing. But if I was to start thinking about breathing and I wanted to breathe better, how should people come to think about training their memory? What should they do if they want to remember an experience while it's happening? What are the fundamentals of that? 语法解析

35:07

Okay, so there's different things. So a lot of people when they talk about memory training is like memory athletes or something where they're trying to memorize like the thousandth digit of pi. And that stuff is not going to be particularly helpful in remembering this moment that you want to hold in mind as pristinely as possible, right? What I would say is the biggest thing that helps with remembering in a way that will keep 语法解析

35:36

get you back into that moment is the sensory details, whatever they are. Now, some people don't have a great ability to remember the sensory details in certain ways. There's people who have what's called aphantasia who can't visually image things, for instance. But to the extent that you can immerse yourself in whatever makes this moment unique, you 语法解析

36:01

that will make it more memorable to you because it's going to be distinctive. The D in medic that sticks out, it'll give you a context that's very unique and specific, the C in medic. And so basically we can do that in part by controlling, managing our, you know, basically just keeping ourselves from sabotaging ourselves for the most part. So, you know, there's just certain things that are just memory blockers like stress, fatigue, 语法解析

36:30

um, illness, depression, multitasking, multitasking is probably the major malady of the modern age, right? Um, you know, if you want to remember this moment, don't keep looking at your phone. Don't keep, don't, uh, turn off, you know, put your, uh, watch and do not disturb mode because the more tempted you are to do these things, even thinking about it, 语法解析

36:54

can be enough to sap your attention and get you out of that moment that you want to remember later on. Right. Okay, so avoiding doing the things that get in the way of you recalling the things is a good place to start. Yeah. Another thing is just setting the intention of what you want to take away in the first place. So, 语法解析

37:16

And this is, I think, a great analogy to the breath, right? Because I think a lot of people think that it should just be natural, should be, we just get everything for free. And that's not really how it works, right? So if you know your memory is going to be incomplete, ask yourself what you want to take away from this experience in the first place. 语法解析

37:37

Because it's a lot easier to focus on the information that you want to take away in the first place than it is to try to pull it up later on if you did not focus on that information. Now, I know that sounds a little like, 语法解析

37:53

obvious in some ways, but how often do we really ask ourselves, what's the memory I want to take away from this experience? I would bet you almost never. I don't do it nearly as much as I should. Although I try to be kinder to my remembering self now than I used to before I wrote my book. Yeah, that's interesting. Okay, so error-driven learning, something that kind of hinted at earlier on. Yeah. Explain that to me. 语法解析

38:21

Well, this is kind of a counterintuitive concept, but basically when our brains form memories, they're a bit incomplete. And like I said, they're very tied to a context. 语法解析

38:34

And so what can be a problem with that is when you're trying to remember certain things, like let's say you're trying to remember, let's say you're trying to learn a new language, right? And you're trying to remember the words that you learned and use it in a conversation when you go on holiday. Well, if you're trying to do that, you want to be able to pull it up in a whole lot of different contexts. 语法解析

38:58

So one of the things we've found in our computer models of memory is that when people try to pull up these memories, the brain won't really do a perfect job of reconstructing what you pulled up. 语法解析

39:11

But then if you get the right answer and you have it in front of you, now the brain can tweak the memory. It can update it in a way so that it's going to be better at pulling up that information later on. So imagine, maybe I'll give you another example. Like I'm trying to memorize your name, right? So now I leave, I'm done with this podcast and I try to visualize you and pull up your name. 语法解析

39:40

Then I actually look at the video of our conversation and then I go, oh, yeah, that's Chris. And I remember his face and everything. Right. Now my brain has tweaked my memory so that I've got a more accurate memory that a more distinctive memory of who you are later on. But it's also from a different it's now been associated with a different context. 语法解析

40:02

And so the more places and times that we bring up this memory, the more resilient it will be and the less tied it will be to one unique cue that we would have. Right. Does that make sense? Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah. 语法解析

40:17

But on the other hand, if we don't give ourselves a chance to pull up the memory in the first place, like if we just try to, I tell myself your name over and over and over again, that's not going to be very helpful because I haven't really given my brain a chance to pull up the crummy memory that it has. I'm just kind of like trying to read this word over and over and over again, but I always have the right answer. So I'm not relying on memory in the first place. So, you know, you imagine… 语法解析

40:46

You're trying to learn how to play basketball. You're obviously bet your best bet is to actually shoot baskets, not to think about it. Right. And like and you're not going to get them all. You're not going to get them all the time. 语法解析

41:00

But it's through that struggle that your brain can tune up and say, I had this model of what I was supposed to do, and it's wrong. And so I need to fix it. And that's what we call error-driven learning. And we can see this. This is actually, if you look at AI models like ChatGPT and so forth, they work because of this principle of error-driven learning where the model tries to predict, let's say, the next word that's going to come up. 语法解析

41:26

And if it gets it wrong, then it tweaks just the connections in the model that are needed so that you can pull up that word later on again. Right. So it's learning, not trying to memorize everything, but rather learning what it needs to do to correct the mistake. And that's where our driven learning really is key. Does that suggest that we learn more from pain and learning? 语法解析

41:49

difficult life circumstances than enjoyable ones? Are we more, do we have the negativity bias present in our memory as well as in our sort of noticing our reticular activating system? 语法解析

42:00

Well, what I'll say is that the pain that I'm talking about is the pain of struggling to remember something. And so if we adopt a strategy of saying that essentially memorizing should be hard, learning should be hard as opposed to learning should be easy and I should be getting easy A's all the time, then it's not so painful. It's just part of the process. Just like you would be if you're trying to learn how to play tennis, you just do it because you like it. Right. 语法解析

42:30

And so the more we can kind of get people from thinking about memory as kind of a shortcoming to thinking about memory as learning as a journey of curiosity, then it's no longer painful. It's kind of the whole process of learning, right? So that's separate from the point that you brought up about the negativity bias, but maybe we could… 语法解析

42:49

I'll let you react to that. No, no, no. You're on the money. Keep going. Okay. So separate from this is this negativity bias. And this is another thing I think that people don't appreciate is that our memories for the past are incredibly biased by what's going on around us in the present. So what I mean by that is if I'm feeling bad, 语法解析

43:12

I will have a bias to pull up negative memories. And whatever memories I pull up, I will reconstruct them in kind of a negative way. 语法解析

43:22

Now, if I have positive, if I'm in a positive frame of mind, I will manifest that opposite bias where I'll be able to pull up memories that are more positive and reconstruct them in a more positive way. So you tend to see both kinds of biases. In fact, oddly enough, as people get, you know, really older, they tend to have more of a positive bias in their memory for whatever reason. This is, of course, just on average, but everybody has 语法解析

43:49

ups and downs, right? And that's going to affect her memories. Uh, and just as an example of this, let's say you're, you know, I had an ex-girlfriend who was dating and, you know, she dumped me for a couple of months. I'm remembering all of these terrible things, either things that I could have done that I did that might've led to the breakup or things that she did that made me think that she was such a terrible person. Uh, 语法解析

44:15

Then later on, I meet the woman of my dreams who I ended up marrying. And it was just like six months later. And now I can look back at my memories from that first relationship in a completely different perspective where it's neither good nor bad. It's just like, if anything, I dodged a bullet. And now I can look back at the positive experiences, what I got out of that relationship, as well as the negative experiences. And so that's what I mean is that 语法解析

44:45

our present beliefs as well as our emotional states affect how we reconstruct things. 语法解析

45:04

it. In those trials, AG1 NextGen was clinically shown to fill common nutrient gaps, improve nutrient levels within three months, and increase healthy gut bacteria by 10 times even in healthy adults. Basically, they've upgraded the formula with better probiotics, more bioavailable nutrients, and clinical validation, and it's still NSF certified for sport, so you know that the quality is legitimate. 语法解析

45:26

They genuinely care about holistic health, which is why I've got my mom to take it, my dad to take it, and tons of my friends too. And it's why I put it inside of my body every single day. And if I found something better, I would switch, but I haven't, which is why I still use it. Best of all, there is a 90-day money-back guarantee. So you can buy it and try it every single day for three months. And if you don't like it, they'll give you your money back for all of it. Right? 语法解析

45:47

Right now, you can get a year's free supply of vitamin D3K2 and five free AG1 travel packs by going to the link in the description below or heading to drinkag1.com slash modern wisdom. That's drinkag1.com slash modern wisdom. Oh, that's fascinating. So this must create a kind of 语法解析

46:07

recursive loop for people whose lives are going well or lives are going badly, for people who are depressed or people who are happy because your current state 语法解析

46:18

creates a context and that context predisposes your brain to viewing and interpreting and recalling and focusing on past experiences that match with where you are right now as an experiencing self. So sad people think about more sad things and happy people think about more happy things. Is that a fair assessment? Yeah. And this is why depression is such a vicious cycle. 语法解析

46:42

Because when you're depressed, you tend to ruminate. Rumination is almost by definition regurgitating memories that are negative. 语法解析

46:51

That reinforce your feelings at the moment, right? So now you recall more negative memories. What happens? You feel worse. The worse you feel, the easier it is to recall negative memories. But even more importantly, the worse you feel, the harder it is to pull up memories that counteract your view of the world at a given time. 语法解析

47:12

A big, big part of cognitive therapy that we would do is get people to overcome those biases by actually pulling up memories that contradicted their sense of the world at a given moment. 语法解析

47:27

Because it's so easy to fall into this trap of, you know, having a negative state of mind and then reconstructing the past in the worst way possible. And then using that to confirm your beliefs about what's happening at the moment. Right. And so, you know, we do have the capability to pull ourselves out of it, at least not necessarily in cases of clinical depression. But I think, you know, when you're having a bad day, 语法解析

47:54

If you're not clinically depressed, it's a lot easier to pull yourself out of it. 语法解析

47:59

By pushing yourself to remember just one positive thing as minor as it could be at the end of your day. And I've done, I don't have the discipline to do things consistently, but when I do this, it takes me a while and I'll pull up something dumb like, Oh, that, you know, uh, I made a good sandwich at lunch or something like that. I like that sandwich. And all of a sudden, uh, 语法解析

48:25

I get access to more stuff. It changes the way I feel. And the change in feeling makes it easier to pull up other memories that make me think maybe today wasn't such a bad day after. So funny, man. You know, I've been spending a lot of time this year really trying to get into neurobiology a lot more. Rick Hansen, if you're familiar with Rick from Hardwiring Happiness, I think he's just so great. You know, he's got this unique intersection of 语法解析

48:49

dharma come buddhist mindfulness stuff and then you know the hardcore science behind the neuroscience things sort of your work as well and uh the more that i realize we have this fascinating window into the structure of our own brain and you do have some conscious control over it even though you can't predict the next thought that's going to come careening into view you do have some conscious control over it um but 语法解析

49:20

unlike going to the gym, you can't see if you're actually doing it. You can't really… 语法解析

49:25

fully tell whether or not you're doing gratitude right. Did I do 10 reps of gratitude there? You can't say that with the same level of certainty that you know if you did 10 repetitions of a bicep curl. You don't know, is this actually making me better? You get a pump. You get a preview in the gym. There's no brain pump. All you do is just have a degree of uncertainty about whether or not that thing was the way that you were supposed to do it. And I think it was, and I'll just keep on doing it. But yeah, 语法解析

49:51

It is really interesting that we do have some control, not entire control, but we do have some control and this control gets tuned up over time. Just on your point about choosing the good sandwich, Oliver Berkman has the idea of a done list, which is the opposite of a to-do list. As he goes through the day and he crosses things off like clean shoes and walked dog and stuff, he likes to do that. And I think 语法解析

50:19

adapted it to a well-done list, which is basically what you're talking about. So toward the end of the day, or as stuff goes on throughout the day, I think, oh, fuck, that was a really good walk. I had a really good walk earlier on today, and the sun was shining, and I got to see a dog. That was nice. The dog was pretty cool. And I was listening to this song, and that song makes me feel happy, and that was good. And it's little things. But yeah, I just… 语法解析

50:42

I'm kind of fascinated about what you were saying there, this sort of interjection maybe for people with a low mood or a catalyst for people that are in good mood. There's two worlds colliding here, and one of them is top-down, which is reframing things as they're happening. Do I want to really be present, as present as possible, allowing this to sink in, and then a little spaced repetition, which I'm sure we'll get onto. Okay. 语法解析

51:07

But then there's also the bottom up, which is, well, go and find good experiences, you know, go and spend time doing things that are worthy of memory. And it, yeah, for people that are in good moods, they want to maintain or bad moods, they want to get out of. 语法解析

51:22

It feels like those two things need to work simpatico together. It's not enough to just think your way out of a living problem or think your way out of a feeling problem, but you also are missing out on some of the gains if you never think about your good experiencing experiences. Oh, absolutely. Yeah, I mean, you want memory to be kind of your co-pilot, but you don't want it to be in the driver's seat, right? What do you mean when you say that? 语法解析

51:50

Well, what I mean is, is that you want to actually experience things that you want to ideally have them work hand in hand. Ask yourself, OK, what what do I want to remember at the end of the day? Right. 语法解析

52:05

what's the memory that I want to carry with me at the end of the week. And often that will help us avoid getting into traps that are things that we often find ourselves doing that are not particularly things we will want to remember later on. Like, um, I have checked email way, 语法解析

52:24

way too many times today. You know, I went on Facebook more than I would have liked today already. And those are things that are not the stuff that I want to remember later on. 语法解析

52:36

Those are the things that, you know, except for the work stuff that I have to deal with, for the most part, that's wasted time in the sense that it generated no memories that I will want to carry with me, right? So I guess investing in the right experiences will give you the right memories. I don't know if that relates to where you were going. No, for sure. I just certainly… 语法解析

52:59

an issue of being taken out of the moment, trying to bank it, to remember it whilst also trying to experience it. You know, Oliver, Oliver has this beautiful, uh, really interesting blog post where he talks about one morning he lives in the Yorkshire Dales in the UK countryside. And, uh, he talks about one morning, beautiful snow, the sun's risen and the birds are chirping and 语法解析

53:24

And he is experiencing this thing and loving it. And as he's experiencing it, he's thinking, you really should remember this. Like, this is really the sort of experience that you should be remembering more of. And 语法解析

53:35

in the act of trying to enjoy something he's whipping himself about not remembering it in future which causes him to not even enjoy it in the moment and i think lots of people have that you know this is so beautiful i better hold on to this i better be able to remember this in future if i can't remember this i'll feel guilty it's like dude you're making yourself feel guilty for not remembering a thing that hasn't fucking finished yet like it hasn't even happened 语法解析

54:00

Yeah, I do. I actually do the opposite for that very reason. I actually will, if I say, I want to remember this later on, I say, 语法解析

54:09

what can I, how can I, what do I want to immerse myself in right now that I really want to take away from this? You know, is it maybe I'll focus on the sky and what it looks like right now or the smells or the sounds of this moment. Maybe I'll just kind of take a moment and really check in with my feelings maybe, and just kind of get a sense of like, well, this is how I felt at this moment. And, 语法解析

54:35

And so, yeah, I mean, I think it's perfectly natural to be at moments where you're like, this is so good. I have to hold on to it. But rather than kicking yourself, you can be proactive and indulge yourself in the very things that you want to remember even more. You mentioned there about emotions. Yeah, you mentioned there about emotions. What's the relationship between emotions and memory? 语法解析

55:01

Well, so we already talked about the idea that emotions can be a context, right? That emotions can bias the things that we remember and the way that we remember them. 语法解析

55:13

But emotions are also associated with these motivational circuits in our brain. Right. So dopamine is a good example. Dopamine helps us. It's not about it's not rewarding per se, but it helps us learn about rewards, learn where they are and how to get them. Right. So where that comes into play is when we're in a new place, you will tend to have more dopamine activity. 语法解析

55:41

When you're encountering something that is surprising, you know, somebody comes in out of the blue that you haven't met before. Well, that will be associated with more dopamine release. When you're curious, when you're in a state of curiosity, when it's like you go, hey, I thought I read this in his book, but he's telling me something completely different. Now you go back to the book. We'll see. We've shown that you get activity throughout the dopaminergic circuits in the brain, right? Yeah. 语法解析

56:10

And those moments tend to be memorable in part because they're producing plasticity. But there is a kind of a catch to this, which is that emotions will often, you know, so these emotionally intense moments, right? 语法解析

56:29

where you get these chemicals released in your brain. They don't turn up the volume in memory or the brightness in memory so much as they turn up the contrast. So they help you remember certain things more than others. And they give us a sense of vividness, but not necessarily that context. So in other words, when we're emotionally, having an emotionally intense experience, we will remember that experience better. 语法解析

56:58

But we won't remember all of the aspects of that experience better, right? So you have a traumatic experience. You'll remember the things that were especially traumatic about it as opposed to the color of the carpet or the rabbit that was in the background when this happened. That's interesting. Let's say that it's something good. What are the areas that an emotionally strong person 语法解析

57:28

memory is going to focus on that? Is it focused on more good things or is it just negativity bias all the way down? No, no. So let's say if it's a good experience that you have, so what's kind of interesting is a lot of the work has focused on information that's experiences that are arousing. 语法解析

57:47

So say you go snowboarding or something and you like snowboarding or you like surfing and you go surfing. Those are good experiences that are pleasant experiences often that are arousing. And what happens again is you'll remember the most significant parts of those experiences, the most attention grabbing parts. Maybe you're surfing and it's that particular wave that you caught that was the most exhilarating part of your set as opposed to the other things. 语法解析

58:15

Now, when you have positive experiences that are kind of calming, we don't know as much about them. So, for instance, like you come back home and you hug your partner or you kind of like your dog starts licking your hand or something like that. Not necessarily arousing, maybe, but maybe if it's relaxing. 语法解析

58:37

It's not going to be the same chemicals released in the brain that are going to promote these memories. And we don't know as much about whether there is an advantage for those calming experiences. It may be that the sort of more hard-coded biological responses that give you these emotional memory enhancements tend to be for more arousing experiences. What's the difference between remembering and imagining? 语法解析

59:08

Not much. So if you actually scan people's brains while they're they are imagining something, you will find that those brain scans are, for the most part, indistinguishable from a brain scan of somebody actually, say, watching a movie or listening to a story. 语法解析

59:30

And those brain scans are fairly indistinguishable from somebody remembering the movie or remembering the story or remembering an experience that they actually have. We are most likely imagining how the past could have been, imagining what's happening in the present and using that same core system to imagine what could happen in the future. 语法解析

59:52

The differences are that we do have this episodic memory system that allows us to ground our experiences in a place in a time. And the other thing is that our imagination typically is not as vivid as reality. So for most of us, 语法解析

01:00:11

When we imagine something, it's not going to be associated with as intense of smell and sight and so forth. It's going to be more focused on the things that we thought about and the emotions we had. And so that's where we have this ability to tell the difference between imagination and memory. 语法解析

01:00:31

But you have to take the time, you have to engage this area of the brain called the prefrontal cortex and actually take pause and use this kind of more reasoning approach to be able to say, this is something that I didn't. 语法解析

01:00:48

actually experience i just thought about it i thought about responding to that email but i didn't really do it and this happens to me all the time most of these problems that i write about in the book are my daily experiences so is it possible to learn something if we don't remember it happening you know you go through you talked about um 语法解析

01:01:12

LeBron James, knowing games. If he can't remember shooting that particular three-pointer, how does that particular three-pointer get added to the corpus of experience that he can draw on to become a better basketball player? I can't remember this very move from when I was 12, but it has contributed to his capacity. Is there embodied learning? Is this such a thing? How does this work? 语法解析

01:01:37

Yeah, yeah. So basically, the kind of memory that we've been largely focused on is the kind of memory I study, which is episodic, that ability to travel to a particular time and place. But the brain has all sorts of capabilities for learning that are not episodic memory-based, right? So you can have somebody even who has a pretty significant memory disorder. Say if you got into a car accident and you had some… 语法解析

01:02:04

you know, damaged your hippocampus and you had amnesia, you could still potentially learn how to play the piano or learn how to become a better basketball player or learn all of these skills because there's… 语法解析

01:02:18

Learning that anytime you have a bunch of neurons connected to each other, talking to each other, there's that capability for plasticity and reforming those connections. And the brain's constantly doing that. It's constantly changing its structure based on our experiences. 语法解析

01:02:34

So that principle of error-driven learning happens, we know, in the motor system, for instance. And even if it's not tied to any particular context, if I'm shooting that basketball, my brain, there's a new brain area called the cerebellum that generates an internal model of what I just did and a prediction of where that ball is going to go into. And if the ball doesn't go into the right place, or if it doesn't feel right as I'm shooting the ball, my 语法解析

01:03:03

my brain will tweak the memory so that I will be better at. In fact, actually, I just saw a talk yesterday suggesting that sleep is a big part of that whole dynamic, that during REM sleep, when we're dreaming, for instance, what may be going on is, at least one of the things that goes on is that the motor system is really tuning itself up so that you get these 语法解析

01:03:26

better movements and better hand-eye coordination based on the skills you've tried to learn early in the day. And in fact, that seems to be why dogs, for instance, like move their legs at night when they're asleep. It's not necessarily that they're having subconscious dream as much as their brain is like basically just tuning up the motor system. And in fact, those movements come from a very primitive area of the brain as it turns out. 语法解析

01:03:54

And your dog's going to wake up tomorrow and be 2% faster because it's practiced it during its sleep. You need to be ready for that. Possibly, yeah. Give me the… So it seems to me like novel experiences are pretty reliably placed into memory. This is new. This is something that's different. And intense experiences as well. This is really… Again, which I guess intensity is kind of like… 语法解析

01:04:23

volume novelty and what we think of as typical novelty is categorical newness I suppose 语法解析

01:04:33

Can you say the difference between the two kinds of novelty again? Sorry, I missed that. Well, if intensity is something I may have done before, but in a manner that I haven't experienced it previously, which I suppose is a kind of novelty. But I think when people think about novelty, they think about something that's categorically new. I haven't been to this particular holiday destination. 语法解析

01:04:55

before. I haven't skied on this particular mountain before, let's say. So let's use skiing as an example. So one might be, I've been down this mountain a hundred times. I know the route, but this one time there's an avalanche behind me. Okay. So I've been there previously, but the level of intensity, or this time I go faster, or this time I do a different trick. Yeah, it's a kind of novelty, but I think experientially for most people, 语法解析

01:05:23

We need to sort of work within the confines that most people's lives are rather routine. You know, you can say, hey, maybe if you want to make your day go a little bit slower, take a different route to work. And you go, yeah, but there's like there's only five routes I can take to work. You know what I mean? So and the same thing goes for skiing down a mountain and so on and so forth. So, yeah, novelty and intensity just seem to be sort of two levers that common threads that have come through today. 语法解析

01:05:48

Well, you know, so it's a great point. I think that novelty doesn't have to be something that is new per se. So the brain's constantly trying to generate predictions about what's going to happen. And this is just based on the way the brain's wired. I mean, I will pour people the details of thalamocortical interactions, but the basic gist of it is that when you're in a completely new place, your brain's just 语法解析

01:06:17

generate has no predictions it can make right or it's making very weak predictions based on similar places you've been but let's say you take the example of you're going down the mountain and you're skiing and you've been down this mountain a hundred times there are still potential prediction errors there that you can make that can drive learning in the sense that you can 语法解析

01:06:41

focus your attention on the minutiae because i mean the world is always changing our brains are always changing i mean everything changes but often we just don't notice it and if you take like meditative practices like mindfulness a big part of these practices is attuning yourself to 语法解析

01:07:02

what's new and that creates these prediction errors in your brain it stimulates curiosity and will give you better memories it creates more distinctive memories so I guarantee you that almost anything you do can be associated with some novelty but you have to be curious and look for it and not assume not get so caught up in your predictions about the world that you just assume that your predictions are right you 语法解析

01:07:30

Hmm. What's the relationship between memory and a sort of subjective passage of time, the sense that we have of how quickly or how slowly time is going or time did go in the past? 语法解析

01:07:45

Yeah, there is a relationship. People argue about the relationship. But one thing that we've noticed is that shifts in our context affect our memories. And that, especially if you look on a long enough time scale, dramatically affects our ability to tell the passage of time. So during the pandemic, people would sit around their computers all day, like all the students who were in my classes. 语法解析

01:08:13

And what I would ask them, one time I just had the idea to just ask them in class just to keep their attention is, do you feel like the days are going faster or slower since the lockdowns happened than before? And so I'll ask you, maybe if you were in a place that was locked down, did the days go by faster or slower for you? Yeah, I think they probably went by pretty quickly. 语法解析

01:08:38

Okay, so this is interesting, but let's go back to it. So basically, if I said just the last 24 hours, did they go by faster or slower? 语法解析

01:08:50

overwhelming majority of people said that they went by slower. I think only two out of 120 people said it was going by faster. Most people said their days were going by slower. But then, speaking to your point, I said, okay, how about the weeks? You get to the end of the week, are they going by faster or slower? And everybody said that the weeks were going by faster. 语法解析

01:09:14

So what's going on? No law of physics can explain that, right? It's like, how does time move more slowly in a day but disappear in a week? And the reason has to do with memory. You're staying in the same context, and so you just have these memories that aren't very different from each other. 语法解析

01:09:35

And so as a result, it feels like the day has just been going really slowly because you haven't been accumulating all these memories that would give you a sense of time passing. 语法解析

01:09:45

but then you reach the end of the week and you can't remember anything because you had all of these blurry memories that interfered with each other so much that you look back and it just feels like the time went by and disappeared because you have effectively lost that time because you can't remember. Right. And so it, memories can really warp our sense of time, uh, uh, as a result. Uh, but the opposite is also true that if you don't have memories, uh, 语法解析

01:10:14

you will be floating in time and space. That is, if you ask people with memory disorders, what date is it? They won't be able to tell you because their last memory of a time and a date was the time that they had, you know, a good memory. 语法解析

01:10:32

But, you know, they'll be, if this, they had a stroke or a cardiac arrest that gave them brain damage in, you know, 1997, they will, every day is 1997 to them. And they look at the mirror and they're like, what's happening? I don't, I don't understand this. What else, what is it that you wish more people knew about memory? If there was something that, uh, 语法解析

01:11:00

is regularly complained to you about how the human memory system works or about some misunderstanding some common myth that people have around it what is it that you wish that you could dispel uh i think that i would i mean there's so many we've talked about a number of them already but i i probably the biggest one is that memory should be free and easy 语法解析

01:11:22

And that's just not true. I mean, all memory research shows that it's hard and it's not easy and it's not free for sure. And so a bit of intention goes a long way in helping you remember what you need as opposed to trying to remember everything and expecting it should be there. 语法解析

01:11:46

And so that's a really big one. And I guess the other one is that memory is supposed to be about the past, and it's really about the present and the future. Well, let's just take the present, for instance, right? For you just to keep up with this conversation, you're constantly referring back in memory to things that I previously said. 语法解析

01:12:09

If you did not have memory, you'd just be repeating the same question over and over and over again, right? And you see this in people with memory disorders. They will repeat themselves every 10 minutes because they don't remember. It's one of the biggest signs if you have a relative who's entering dementia. If they say the same thing over and over again and don't remember that they've repeated themselves, that's a big sign that they have a memory problem. 语法解析

01:12:37

So that's just one example. But, you know, others are just your ability to recall memories and use it to make sense of what's going on right now. Well, I've been here before and therefore here's what I can expect is going to happen now. I've done this podcast a number of times and I know I can do this and I'm going to do a great job of interviewing because I've interviewed a lot of people before. And 语法解析

01:13:04

And that's also your expectations for the future and your predictions about the future. 语法解析

01:13:09

And so your ability to remember to, you know, you want to be able to buy groceries when you get to the store. You're using memory to project into the future what you will be buying from the store. Right. And then later on, when you get to the store, you have to rely on memory to buy those things. So, I mean, there's I can give you a billion examples. I mean, these are just ones that just popped up off my head there. 语法解析

01:13:35

There's no shortage of examples in terms of how memory is about the present and the future. And, I mean, if it were just about the past, it would be useless because the past is over. We survived the past, so there's nothing in the past that we need to hold on to except the stuff that matters for the present and the future. Yeah, crazy. Charan Ranganath, ladies and gentlemen. It's fascinating, the idea of 语法解析

01:14:04

How human memory works is something that I've been really interested in for a long time. So it's nice that you've got to do a primer today. Where should people go? They want to check out all of the stuff that you do online. Well, so I have a website called charanranganath.com and people can sign up for a sub stack. I haven't actually started writing them yet, but now that I'm done with teaching for the year, I'll start to use that to create a mailing list. Free 语法解析

01:14:30

I'm not going to sell anything to anyone. I just, cause it's not what I do for a living. So, so people could just get more information that way. You can also look up information about my events. Also, I have an Instagram that's pretty active and people can follow me there at the memory doc, the memory DOC. And that's a good one. And a little less active on LinkedIn, but I have LinkedIn and blue sky as well. 语法解析

01:14:58

off Twitter now because it's a hellscape. That's another conversation though. Sure, I'll talk for another time. Sharon, I appreciate you. Thank you, mate. All right. Thank you very much. Take care. 语法解析

01:15:13

If you are looking for new reading suggestions, look no further than the Modern Wisdom reading list. It is 100 books that you should read before you die. The most interesting, life-changing and impactful books I've ever read with descriptions about why I like them and links to go and buy them. And you can get it right now for free by going to chriswillx.com slash books. That's chriswillx.com slash books. 语法解析

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